The Assignment

“...teach them the statutes and instructions and make known to them the way they are to go and the things they are to do.” --Exodus 18:20

Introduction

The value of the assignment in the teaching-learning process has long been recognized by educators. It is an integral part of any lesson. In lieu to this, good teachers plan their assignments well because they know that the success of any lesson depends in a large measure on the kind of assignment given to students. Consequently, students do assignments that are clear, worthwhile, and purposeful.

Moreover, assignment is that part of the lesson which tells the pupils what they are to do and what they have to accomplish in the lesson. It is synonymous with homework and agreement. Modern teacher looks at it as a lesson to be studied, a theme to be written, a project to be accomplished, an exercise to be explained, a selection to be memorized, a question to be answered, an interview to be accomplished, or a review of the past lesson/s. Such activities are parts of the teaching-learning cycle.

Theoretical Constructs

A theory related to this topic is the Theory of Minimalism by J. Carroll. The theory suggests that (1) all learning tasks should be meaningful and self-contained activities, (2) learners should be given realistic projects as quickly as possible, (3) instruction should permit self-directed reasoning and improvising by increasing the number of active learning activities, (4) training materials and activities should provide for error recognition and recovery and, (5) there should be a close linkage between the training and actual system.

The critical idea of minimalist theory is to minimize the extent to which instructional materials obstruct learning and focus the design on activities that support learner-directed activity and accomplishment. Carroll feels that training developed on the basis of other instructional theories (e.g., Gagne, Merrill) is too passive and fails to exploit the prior knowledge of the learner or use errors as learning opportunities.

According to Carroll, the learners should be allowed to start immediately on meaningful tasks. Also, minimize the amount of reading and other passive forms of training by allowing users to fill in the gaps themselves. Likewise, include error recognition and recovery activities in the instruction.

Reflections and Insights

During my observation, the significance of assignment is apparent. It is the chief means of stimulating and directing learning activities inside or outside the classroom. It helps the students in creating favorable attitudes toward the task to be done. My critic teachers always make it to a point that every meeting there is an assignment given. Stenography, Drafting, Bookkeeping, and Technology and Livelihood Education (TLE) were the subjects that used assignment liberally by my critic teachers.

Through giving such work to be done at home, students are being developed to be more creative, resourceful, and motivated towards the subject matter. It is also a way of preparing the students to the next day’s discussion. It improves their classroom performance in which they became more active in participating in the class discussion because of their enough preparation due to assignment given and accomplished. Likewise, the interest of the students will be visible through complying with it. Moreover, students take pride in their accomplishments, and each assignment completed is regarded as an accomplishment which serves to motivate the student to do better. It can be the means of developing good study habits and independent work.

It was been used by the teachers in a purposeful manner perhaps it is their duty to ensure that all his assignments are significant and meaningful to students. It is a way of enriching the lesson. However, it is also used when the students were lacking enough time during quizzes or activities to accomplish things, some of the teachers came up to a decision to make them to be an assignment to be continued at their respective houses. In addition, some teachers were using assignment to give some remedy on the grades of some students who had a weak performance—a chance to get good grades. Also, there were teachers who used assignment to develop the habit of studying their subject regularly, for example Stenography and Bookkeeping.

Recommendations

Hence, the importance of assignment in the educative process is overwhelming. It is in the teacher’s own strategy on how to make it more interesting for them to have a more positive attitude towards the lesson and have a purposeful agenda that answers the needs

However, I have observed that most of the teachers, gave assignments that are too long. If a student had long assignments in, for example, 6 subjects to be submitted the next day, the probability of completing those would not be good. Perhaps if they could be able to finish everything, the quality of their work would be affected. However, if the teacher was able to provide an assignment which has definite number of items that are more possible to be made meticulously by the students, the dilemma for this would be solved. As a teacher, he should be able to be sensitive enough on the capacity of the students to accomplish the assigned tasks, including the consideration for other subject that his students were having.

Associative Learning

"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action."
-Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977

Introduction

Observational learning is also known as social learning theory which was proposed by Albert Bandura. It became one of the most influential theories of learning and development.
It occurs when an observer’s behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An observer’s behavior can be affected by the positive or negative consequences, called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment, of a model’s behavior. It assumes that individuals learn specific cognitive structures from observing the behavior of others and that these strategies account for the acquisition of social behavior. There are four key processes of observational learning. These are attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Bandura also stresses two important things which are modeling and imitation. Imitation involves copying the behavior of the model one is exposed to.
Moreover, the observational learning has impacts in curriculum, instruction and assessment. In curriculum, students must get a chance to observe and model the behavior that leads to a positive reinforcement. In instruction, educators must encourage collaborative learning, since much of learning happens within important social and environmental contexts. For assessment purposes, a learned behavior often cannot be performed unless there is the right environment for it. Educators, as an answer, must provide the incentive and the supportive environment for the behavior to happen. Otherwise, assessment may not be accurate.
Theoretical Constructs

Observational learning by Albert Bandura is also called social learning theory. It occurs when an observer's behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An observer's behavior can be affected by the positive or negative consequences--called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment-- of a model's behavior.

There are several guiding principles behind observational learning, or social learning theory. According to Bandura, the observer will imitate the model's behavior if the model possesses characteristics-- things such as talent, intelligence, power, good looks, or popularity--that the observer finds attractive or desirable. The observer will react to the way the model is treated and mimic the model's behavior. When the model's behavior is rewarded, the observer is more likely to reproduce the rewarded behavior. When the model is punished, an example of vicarious punishment, the observer is less likely to reproduce the same behavior. A distinction exists between an observer's "acquiring" a behavior and "performing" a behavior. Through observation, the observer can acquire the behavior without performing it. The observer may then later, in situations where there is an incentive to do so, display the behavior. Learning by observation involves four separate processes: attention, retention, production and motivation. Attention and retention account for acquisition or learning of a model's behavior; production and motivation control the performance. Human development reflects the complex interaction of the person, the person's behavior, and the environment. The relationship between these elements is called reciprocal determinism. A person's cognitive abilities, physical characteristics, personality, beliefs, attitudes, and so on influence either his or her behavior and environment. These influences are reciprocal, however. A person's behavior can affect his feelings about himself and his attitudes and beliefs about others. Likewise, much of what a person knows comes from environmental resources such as television, parents, and books. Environment also affects behavior: what a person observes can powerfully influence what he does. But a person's behavior also contributes to his environment.

Bandura states that students must get a chance to observe and model the behavior that leads to a positive reinforcement. Educators must encourage collaborative learning, since much of learning happens within important social and environmental contexts. A learned behavior often cannot be performed unless there is the right environment for it. Educators must provide the incentive and the supportive environment for the behavior to happen. Otherwise, assessment may not be accurate.

Reflections and Insights

This type of learning is truly essential in the educative process. The students tend to be keen observer. This is, definitely, important to make the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and habits, which they are acquiring in the teaching and learning process, be more permanent and retained. That is why a teacher should be a good role model to his students because, primarily, they will copy what the teacher is manifesting inside the classroom. Likewise, during demonstrations, an instructor should be free of errors for the students to get the necessary skills perfectly the first time. Further, several studies have shown the effectiveness of observational learning in the educative process because students, especially the children, greatly depend on what they have seen and tend to imitate what they have observed.
In general, the classes that I have observed have used this kind of learning strategy. Specifically, the skill subjects like Stenography and Keyboarding. Indeed the beginning of the class semester in these subjects is crucial. The students should be able to acquire the correct practices of the skills and this could only be attained through the proper way of demonstrating the correct writing of strokes for the former and correct typing position and right places of their fingers in the home key of typewriters in the latter. The teacher should be able to do it perfectly the first time for the students’ benefit, in which, in the long run, would be a help for them in developing correctly the necessary skills to be acquired.
Moreover, the other subjects I have observed also used this technique in teaching. For instance, the teacher used pictures and slides that are related to their topic and let her students do the observation for several minutes and afterwards a discussion will follow. This is very effective because students are developing their critical analysis on things. On the other hand, the follow-up discussion is a good way to develop the students’ skills in communication, they were given a chance to express their thoughts and share them to their classmates.
However, skills are not the only concern of observational learning but also the way of assimilating good values and characters from the teacher. He should always be a good role model to his students. He should manifest and apply the moral values that a teacher should possess. By means of this, the education’s goal could be achieved more, in which, education does not solely focus in developing and acquiring the necessary knowledge and skills but also integrating values and good conduct. This calls for the permanent modification of behavior of a student.

Recommendations
The teachers should always make it to a point that what they are teaching should always be properly manifested. This entails to being a role model of good behavior that will influence the learners. Likewise, during demonstrations, the teachers should do it perfectly the first time to be able to achieve easily the desired goals and objectives for the day.

Observational Learning

"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action."
-Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977

Introduction

Observational learning is also known as social learning theory which was proposed by Albert Bandura. It became one of the most influential theories of learning and development.

It occurs when an observer’s behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An observer’s behavior can be affected by the positive or negative consequences, called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment, of a model’s behavior. It assumes that individuals learn specific cognitive structures from observing the behavior of others and that these strategies account for the acquisition of social behavior. There are four key processes of observational learning. These are attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Bandura also stresses two important things which are modeling and imitation. Imitation involves copying the behavior of the model one is exposed to.

Moreover, the observational learning has impacts in curriculum, instruction and assessment. In curriculum, students must get a chance to observe and model the behavior that leads to a positive reinforcement. In instruction, educators must encourage collaborative learning, since much of learning happens within important social and environmental contexts. For assessment purposes, a learned behavior often cannot be performed unless there is the right environment for it. Educators, as an answer, must provide the incentive and the supportive environment for the behavior to happen. Otherwise, assessment may not be accurate.

Theoretical Constructs

Observational learning by Albert Bandura is also called social learning theory. It occurs when an observer's behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An observer's behavior can be affected by the positive or negative consequences--called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment-- of a model's behavior.

There are several guiding principles behind observational learning, or social learning theory. According to Bandura, the observer will imitate the model's behavior if the model possesses characteristics-- things such as talent, intelligence, power, good looks, or popularity--that the observer finds attractive or desirable. The observer will react to the way the model is treated and mimic the model's behavior. When the model's behavior is rewarded, the observer is more likely to reproduce the rewarded behavior. When the model is punished, an example of vicarious punishment, the observer is less likely to reproduce the same behavior. A distinction exists between an observer's "acquiring" a behavior and "performing" a behavior. Through observation, the observer can acquire the behavior without performing it. The observer may then later, in situations where there is an incentive to do so, display the behavior. Learning by observation involves four separate processes: attention, retention, production and motivation. Attention and retention account for acquisition or learning of a model's behavior; production and motivation control the performance. Human development reflects the complex interaction of the person, the person's behavior, and the environment. The relationship between these elements is called reciprocal determinism. A person's cognitive abilities, physical characteristics, personality, beliefs, attitudes, and so on influence either his or her behavior and environment. These influences are reciprocal, however. A person's behavior can affect his feelings about himself and his attitudes and beliefs about others. Likewise, much of what a person knows comes from environmental resources such as television, parents, and books. Environment also affects behavior: what a person observes can powerfully influence what he does. But a person's behavior also contributes to his environment.

Bandura states that students must get a chance to observe and model the behavior that leads to a positive reinforcement. Educators must encourage collaborative learning, since much of learning happens within important social and environmental contexts. A learned behavior often cannot be performed unless there is the right environment for it. Educators must provide the incentive and the supportive environment for the behavior to happen. Otherwise, assessment may not be accurate.

Reflections and Insights

This type of learning is truly essential in the educative process. The students tend to be keen observer. This is, definitely, important to make the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and habits, which they are acquiring in the teaching and learning process, be more permanent and retained. That is why a teacher should be a good role model to his students because, primarily, they will copy what the teacher is manifesting inside the classroom. Likewise, during demonstrations, an instructor should be free of errors for the students to get the necessary skills perfectly the first time. Further, several studies have shown the effectiveness of observational learning in the educative process because students, especially the children, greatly depend on what they have seen and tend to imitate what they have observed.

In general, the classes that I have observed have used this kind of learning strategy. Specifically, the skill subjects like Stenography and Keyboarding. Indeed the beginning of the class semester in these subjects is crucial. The students should be able to acquire the correct practices of the skills and this could only be attained through the proper way of demonstrating the correct writing of strokes for the former and correct typing position and right places of their fingers in the home key of typewriters in the latter. The teacher should be able to do it perfectly the first time for the students’ benefit, in which, in the long run, would be a help for them in developing correctly the necessary skills to be acquired.

Moreover, the other subjects I have observed also used this technique in teaching. For instance, the teacher used pictures and slides that are related to their topic and let her students do the observation for several minutes and afterwards a discussion will follow. This is very effective because students are developing their critical analysis on things. On the other hand, the follow-up discussion is a good way to develop the students’ skills in communication, they were given a chance to express their thoughts and share them to their classmates.

However, skills are not the only concern of observational learning but also the way of assimilating good values and characters from the teacher. He should always be a good role model to his students. He should manifest and apply the moral values that a teacher should possess. By means of this, the education’s goal could be achieved more, in which, education does not solely focus in developing and acquiring the necessary knowledge and skills but also integrating values and good conduct. This calls for the permanent modification of behavior of a student.

Recommendations

The teachers should always make it to a point that what they are teaching should always be properly manifested. This entails to being a role model of good behavior that will influence the learners. Likewise, during demonstrations, the teachers should do it perfectly the first time to be able to achieve easily the desired goals and objectives for the day.

Classroom Management

"Being without a teacher is just like the Earth being without gravity."

Introduction

Classroom Management is the way in which student behavior, movement, and interaction during a lesson are organized and controlled by the teacher to be able to achieve the educational goals. Likewise, it is a system for structuring physical space and delivering instruction that manages behavior with the overall purpose of promoting student learning in the classroom. It can also be defined as the teacher’s ability to cooperatively manage time, space, resources, and student’s roles to provide a classroom that is conducive to successful learning.

It encompasses several aspects. It is a gestalt, dependent upon several interdependent components such as an engaging curriculum; working with anger, projection, and depression; students are responsible citizen; the teacher as a self-knowing model; classroom management skills, working with resistance, conflict, and stress; and robust instruction. Moreover, it also involves a positive classroom environment, appropriate standards of behavior for students, student engagement, and effective management of routines and transitions.

A central purpose of classroom management is to establish and maintain a learning environment that fosters both effective and efficient instruction while maintaining a positive social culture for students. Consequently, contemporary classroom management practices should be viewed not only from a behavioral perspective, but also from social and cultural perspectives. Thus, students’ explicit classroom behaviors must be understood as a function of their socio-cultural backgrounds. As a result a teacher can create a foundation for building and maintaining a positive classroom culture by learning about and attending to the relationship between students’ socio-cultural backgrounds and their classrooms behaviors which directly influence the kind of classroom management that took place in the teaching and learning process.

It is very strengthening to know that effective classroom management is effective and efficient instruction. It, then, perhaps considered as one of the most important and one of the most difficult tasks the teacher performs.

Theoretical Constructs

In the teaching and learning process, one of the roles of the teacher is to be a productive, efficient, and effective classroom manager aside from being a facilitator, guidance counselor, role model, and evaluator. Indeed it is not a simple task assigned to a teacher. He needs to plan, organize, coordinate, direct, and control his lessons to be taught including the way he handle the class to be able to achieve the expected learning outcome. He should also communicate well with his students and discipline them if necessary. In addition, he should be able to manipulate time, space, personnel, materials, authority, and responsibility. On the other hand, part of classroom management is resolving conflicts between the school and society, between roles and personalities, between the group and individuals, between immediate and long-term goals, among personalities, and among roles. In line with this, the following are the theories under classroom management, specifically the behaviors, acts, and performance of students inside the classroom which greatly affect the teacher or the classroom manager on how he will going to deal with the dilemmas that will arise in the teaching and learning process.

The first theory is the Control Theory which was developed by William Glasser in 1984. He suggests that there are four basic human needs. These are love, control, freedom, and fun. These four components are necessary for a healthy psychological balance. Children need to be taught how to control their behavior. He also stated that it is the responsibility of a teacher to help the students make good choices by making clear the connection between behavior and consequences. He emphasizes that people do not picture themselves doing badly. Individuals may at times choose to do self-destructive things, but do not intend to destroy themselves. This theory suggests that one of the criteria that make people psychologically healthy is possessing control in their life. Having autonomy, as a student, increases the control and self-esteem in a student’s life. According to Glasser, pushing a student into a corner until they conform to teacher’s expectations is not in accordance with psychologically healthy adolescent. There is a need to look at the process of acquiring those skills as opposed to concentrating on activities with predictive consequences.

Another theory is the Ginott Model. The Ginott Model concentrates on the communication between teacher and student. This approach concentrates on avoiding criticism and trying to understand the student’s feelings. Teachers are encouraged to foster student autonomy and try to help students take responsibility for their actions. These goals are accomplished by establishing a communication with the students and by reasoning with the student.

There is another theory named Kaye Model that views the character of children built upon internalized standards. People constantly judge their actions by these internal standards. By teaching and building upon these internal standards, children can be taught to by self-governing and responsible for their performances. Students intrinsically motivated to behave properly if they are taught how to do it. Students are responsible for their own motivation and for monitoring their own behavior. Teachers should not life these responsibilities off of the students’ shoulders. The role of the teacher is to teach students how to monitor themselves. Lastly is the theory of Jones Model. Frederic H. Jones developed a model of classroom discipline which accentuated the physical presence of the teacher. The basic assumptions of this are that children need to be controlled and that teachers can achieve this control through body language, administration, and parental support. A teacher needs to understand stage presence. The ripple effects of teacher’s presence will go out and affect each student if the teacher adequately forceful. Stopping instruction, staring, sitting close to the student are all powerful intimidation techniques which should stop students from misbehaving.

Reflections and Insights

Through the exposure that I have attained during my observations in different classes, I could assess that classroom management is really important in the success of the learning process. It encompasses everything in the teaching and learning cycle. It includes the way of giving homework, the rules inside the classroom, the rewards that may be given, the grading system, the discipline of the learners, the class jobs designated to each member, and the like. Likewise, apart from being the facilitator, guidance counselor, evaluator, and role model; teacher serves also as classroom manager. It comprises different challenging aspects.

Most of my critic teachers were able to possess the qualities of a good classroom manager. They were able to supervise their classes successfully. Generally, there were times that students were so incontrollable and hard to be disciplined, but fortunately their teachers, though it’s apparently difficult, were able to manage the class. There were moments that students were too noisy and busy with their own stuff and cannot notice that the teacher was already around. The role of the teacher as the manager of the class dominates as he talked and reprimanded the students.

Good classroom management affects how the study environment in a class will be conducive as they undergo with the lesson. In connection to this, every teacher should be able to supervise the process in the educative process.

Recommendations

Every teacher should be able to possess good classroom management. A well-managed class should be favorable to mental growth and development of students. Thus, it establishes an atmosphere which permits activities to be carried on effectively.

On the other hand, no matter what the circumstances arouse like the students who are hard-headed, the teacher’s temperament should always be controlled. He must be guided that his attitude towards the situation will predominantly affect the process of teaching and learning.